Religion is a cultural system of beliefs, practices and ethics that are central to the lives of a community. It may include a set of sacred texts, symbols and holy places that explain the origin of life, the universe and other phenomena. It has been a major factor in world history, as both an instrument of liberation and coercion and the basis for much of human knowledge. The concept of religion has been widely debated since the 19th century, when a number of scholars began to explore the subject scientifically. Until recently, most of these attempts have been “monothetic”: they have assumed that a religious belief or practice must have some defining property that makes it unique and separate from other beliefs or practices. However, recent decades have seen a shift towards “polythetic” approaches that embrace the notion that religion is not uniquely identifiable.
Religions vary enormously in their beliefs and practices. They may be very large and coherently organized, with a clear hierarchical structure (e.g., Roman Catholicism) and a clear line of authority and control (pope, cardinals, bishops, priests, laity) running parallel to a spiritual hierarchy of apostles, saints, martyrs and gurus; or they may be loosely organized with no overall structure at all. They may also be based on the beliefs and practices of particular ethnic groups or geographical areas.
In addition to a set of beliefs, religions typically include a variety of rituals and ceremonies, such as birth and marriage rites, baptisms, funerals and memorial services. These rituals and ceremonies are practiced in all cultures and in most religious affiliations, although they vary enormously from one religion to another. For example, the ceremony surrounding a person’s death is different in every culture and within each religion, but there are some universal elements in the ceremonies.
Social theorist Emile Durkheim (1858-1918) was the first to study religion in terms of its societal impact. He believed that if people were to feel they belonged to a community, they must share common values and adhere to rules for behavior consistency and morality. He also suggested that religion serves as a social glue and provides comfort during times of crisis, conflict and tragedy.
Modern sociology of religion focuses on the ways that religious beliefs and practices influence societies and individuals. Scholars often argue that to limit the definition of religion to a belief in a supernatural being, a judgment after death or idol worship excludes too many people and obscures the deeper motives behind their beliefs. In this view, religion has complex societal impacts and influences people in both positive and negative ways. A more radical critique of religion has gone so far as to suggest that it is an invented category whose semantic expansion went hand in hand with European colonialism. This critique is sometimes referred to as postmodernism or deconstructionism.